Sources of stress in elite football players

Sources of focusing in selected conference footb in entirely halting pseudsSources of strive in selected football players.AbstractIn this piece we shall look at variant, its rendering, and its capability occurrence in the world of the professional football player. We get out examine the possible sources and map menstruum literature sources to support our assertions.Having d angiotensin converting enzyme that we shall examine in detail the case of Mr Vasey, a youngster who embarked on a professional football vocation just now did non make it onto the elite circuit. We shall examine his personal account for evidence to support or refute our assessment.If you read some of the tabloid newspapers, you could be forgiven for thinking that an elite football players life is little more than huge amounts of money, fast cars, a succession of pretty women and endless panegyric from mindlessly adoring fans when performing on the football pitch. Some of the more disreputable papers may overly dwell on a slightly polar ( that slackly equally false) aspect of their life, the drink, drugs, sordid sex romps in hotel rooms and gambling.The truth of the matter, in the vast studyity of cases, is that the elite football player is a finely honed suspensor at the peak of his prep. He is required to perform daily in training routines and in the gym, less frequently on the pitch, and put himself at pretend of cargoner threatening injuries on a regular basis. All this is done in the full knowledge that he has worked his way up a professional ladder to a comparatively short window of elite act and that thither be always many more hopefuls who argon climbing up behind him either waiting to push him off or to watch him as he falls.You may regard the introduction as rather melodramatic, but it is intended to illustrate the truly different perceptions that are ordinarily held about the life styles of the elite footballer. In this piece we are going to re view the stresses and pressures that are commonly experienced by this elite host and also how they (generally) man days to cope with them.We also intend to illustrate the theoretical problems faced by the elite footballer with a genuinely case study of a young man, Mr Peter Vasey who has gone a long way to becoming one of the elite class and then, for various reasons, which we shall discuss, decided non to pursue it further.Stress and Stress managementWe all think that we know what stress is and that we bath easily recognise it. It real(a)ly proves to be a very hard item to define as firstly, it is important to distinguish between tangible (biological) stress and psychological stress. The two are clearly related but fundamentally different. Secondly, stress is a multitude of different responses to a multitude of different potential ca habits.In this piece we are going to consider the various arrests of psychological stress on elite footballers. In this context we mountain look for a definition of stress in a oddly informative article by Crampton et al. (1995) . She reviews the various definitions of stress.Hans Selye (1956), a pioneer in stress research, has defined stress as the non-specific response of the soundbox to any demands made upon it (Kreitner Kinicki, 1992, p. 597). It is considered to be an internal state or reaction to anything we consciously or unconsciously perceive as a threat, either real or imagined (Clarke, 1988). Stress post evoke feelings of frustration, fear, conflict, pressure, hurt, anger, sadness, inadequacy, guilt, loneliness, or confusion (Cavanagh, 1988). Individuals feel stress when they are fired or lose a loved one (negative stress) as well as when they are promoted or go on a vacation (positive stress). While many individuals believe they must avoid stress to live longer, Freese (1976) argues that it is the salt and spice of life and that to have no stress we would have to be dead.Selve defines the basic biologic al interpretation of stress while the Kreitner definition starts to incorporate the possible psychological elements that generate the biological responses. Clarke adds to our understanding by considering the psychological responses that cornerstone be produced by various stresses and Cavanagh modifies the definition further by introducing the concept of positive and negative stress. Freese makes the very perceptive comment that stress is an integral and inevitable feature of life itself. This particular insight can be taken rather further insofar as there are some individuals who drive stress hard to cope with (non-copers) and others who appear to positively grow in stressful situations (copers)In toll of our footballers under consideration, we must accept that stress can, and does affect action as we shall discuss (see on). Basic psychological supposition shows us that individuals who are less than optimally stressed may not make enough effort to achieve their designated add ress whereas those who are overstressed may not be able to concentrate on the task in hand and perform to their maximum capacity. In either detailuality it is clear that optimal performance is impaired. Equally it follows that there is an optimal amount of stress to achieve optimum performance. In practical impairment, that optimal amount is only really possible to appraise in retrospect, and that is why many would describe the work of the aggroup carriage, coach and trainer as an art rather than a science.Haspels (2004) looked specifically at the levels of stress in pre- and post-match footballers. Unsurprisingly, he found that the highest levels of stress were found pre-match in an International game. oneness of the standard measures of stress in the resting subject is the cortisol level. Unfortunately corporal activity also puts up cortisol levels so one of the major predictors of stress was rendered useless in this study. Haspels also found that the players performed best when their stress levels were controlled sooner the gameWork by Anshel (2001) looked at the causes of acute stress on the playing field and came to the rather surprising conclusion that the major causes of stress in that particular situation was consistently found to be receiving what was perceived to be a bad call from the referee and making a major physical error (missed kick and so on) When these eventualities occurred, the athletes concerned tended to make negative cognitive appraisals followed by an avoidance grapple strategy. The same study also found that approach coping was most commonly seen after positive appraisals. These observations clearly support the transactional coping model. The use of appraisals and coping strategy was directly dependent on the perceived nature of the stressful event.Stress is an inherent part of football. It may, in part, be added to by the unrealistic expectations of the coaches, managers and the fans. Every team in the league is told that this year the cup go away be ours at the beginning of the season and all the training, playing and motivation pass on be directed towards winning it. The reality, of course, is that only one team will win it.Continued stress has been cited as the main reason for many of the younger players (including our study subject) for their lack of enjoyment and subsequently leaving the game. It is interesting to tick that many sources cite youth as one of the causes of acute stress on the grounds that the youngster may not yet have highly-developed the physical sports skills and coping strategies that the older, more experienced players have. We will not consider this element further as our concern in this piece is primarily the elite footballer who, by definition, has already mastered his game.In broad terms, according to Lazarus (1999), coping with stress consists of a persons conscious attempt at managing the demands and intensity of events perceived as stressful or improving ones person al resources (e.g., positive affect, confidence, self-control) in attempting to reduce or manage ones perceived stress intensity. He also observes that one of the critical factors in an athletes adoption of a particular coping strategy is their cognitive appraisal of the stressful event or situation. Lazarus sums up his appreciation of the coping response as an athletes ability to accurately appraise the situation and the subsequent use of an assume coping strategy as the critical factor in explaining an athletes physiological and psychological adaptation to stress in sport.MethodOur rule of investigation falls into two parts. In terms of the stresses faced by elite footballers and their coping mechanisms, we have consulted, appraised and quoted authoritative literature on the subject. In terms of the real problems faced by Mr. Vasey, we have interviewed him and the solvings of the interview are appended to this piece as appendix ISources of potential stressClearly there are a gr eat many sources of potential stress that our hypothetical elite footballer may face. Broadly speaking they can be categorised into- blow related stress. Performance misgiving Alpha male problems in a team game Age Competition stress Constant motivation effect dependence Constant levels of fitness Injury concerns Dietary concerns Drug monitoring concerns Premature retirementFinancial Living up to a perceived lifestyle Transient nature of income Income dependent on continued performancePublicity related Media attention Family intrusion Privacy intrusionDirect stress-related problems Drink Drugs family relationship problems Cognitive functioningLet us consider each one of these potential stresses in turnSports related stressesPerformance anxietyIn a well written and comprehensive article, Poczwardowski and Conroy (2002) discuss the stresses and coping mechanisms of elite performers. They categorise the various coping mechanisms into 36 sub-categories on th e basis of direct interviews. The standard categorisations of problem-focused, emotion-focused, appraisal-focused, and avoidance-focused etc. were amplified and extended to cover a greater rang of detected strategies. For example greater motivational changes after failure was report by one athlete as a stimulus to train harder so as not to fail a second time.Stress can affect different sportsmen in different ways. Some appear to thrive and perform well, others find that it is a bar to optimum performance. Those elite footballers in the first category do not bespeak any intervention as far as their performance in the game is concerned but an interesting study by Solberg et al. (2000) looked at the use of different relaxation techniques pre- and post performance in elite athletes. They found that athletes who practised meditation-related relaxation techniques had their blood lactate levels returning to normal quicker than their non-relaxed counterparts. contrasted to expectation how ever, they found no meaningful difference in their levels of pre-exercise anxiety.Alpha-male problems in a team gameThis is an anecdotally reported phenomenon which does not appear to have been investigated from a scientific perspective. The regular alpha-male personality type is over represented in the elite footballer community. Aggression, speed, firmness of decision making, independence and rapid responses are all prized attributes of the elite footballer. These are seldom attributes that are seen in the personality types that are happy playing as an integral part of a team. Football, by its very nature, is played by a team of eleven on the pitch and off the pitch, a very much vastr team is convolute. Prima Donna behaviour, typical of the alpha-male, cannot be easily accommodated in much(prenominal) circumstances. It may be tolerated as long as the player concerned is delivering the results, but it can be an huge cause of stress when the results stop being delivered.Age Fo otballers get older. In terms of their professional use, they age perhaps faster than professionals in other fields. in that location is a very narrow window of opportunity for them to be at the top of their chosen field. To play at elite level for more than a decade is considered to be quite un plebeian. Part of the reason for this is the natural ageing process which is present in every other individual, but also there is the ever-present problem of both career threatening injury and also the huge wear and tear on the joints (see on) which can give rise to significant bring aroundth impairment in after life.Turner et al. (2000) examined this problem in some detail and their results make impressive reading. Their cohort were all professional footballers. 32% of whom reported having surgery on at least one occasion. Of those, over half had knee surgery and a quarter of those had complete joint replacements. 15% reported having hip surgery with other 9% awaiting surgery.Others in the group were having non-invasive treatments. Nearly half had physiotherapy in one form or another for injuries bear on during their career and over a quarter were having some form of analgesia or anti-inflammatory drugs for pain associated with football injuries.Osteoarthritis (OA) was diagnosed in at least one site in nearly half of the respondents and the vast majority of those were hips and knees. Significantly nearly 10% were registered as disabled due to OA and, very significantly, 72% of all respondents agreed with the statement I am concerned with how OA may affect my body in the future, clearly a major source of potential stress.(Barlow et al. 2000)Although joint problems were, predictably, seen as the most common pathology, other morbidity was found. Neuropsychological problems were not uncommon, presumably related to episodes of concussion or repeated trauma such as heading the football. 10 of the group reported problems such as memory complaints, dizziness and headache s.Sport related problems included early retirement, enforced step-down in working hours or even a change to a sedentary occupation. Not only can all of this be viewed as a major source of stress to those who are defending because of it, but also it must be stressful for the still-active player who may know what may be in store for him.Competition stress This is an area that has been extensively studied. Competition stress can be an enhancer for some players but equally it can be an inhibitor for others. There is a distinction to be made between the trait of anxiety and the state of anxiety which is quite significant and, to a large extent, is a reflection of the ability of the individual to cope with and handle the stress levels.Sanderson and Reilly (1983) did the classic study in this field. Their target group were elite athletes. They found that the group of athletes who had the anxiety trait correlated highly with those who had high pre-race anxiety states and this correlated h ighly with the actual race performance. Very significantly, the greatest reduction in post-race anxiety levels was seen in those runners who performed well in their races.Constant motivationIn order to maintain elite footballer status a player must find a source of constant motivation. Initially, in his adolescent training days, the motivation may be personal glory and the goal orientated drive that comes with wish to achieve professional status.Having achieved that goal however, the player must then find other motivational drives to maintain his progress. For some, it drive comes from considerations of status and wealth, for others it could be the enquire for adulation and fame, others may have personal goals of achieving the pinnacle of their chosen profession, these are the achievement-junkies that are seen in any professional walk of life. Whatever the motivation, success invariable comes at a cost. Decisions, and wherefore usually sacrifices, have to be made along the route of attainment and achievement.In this piece we are considering specifically the elite footballer who, by definition, has managed to achieve the peak of his career. We should perhaps also consider the other athletes who by virtue of circumstance, situation, lack of motivation or perhaps even random differences in pre-natal myelination patterns, do not actually achieve the top of their profession. We shall discuss one such case in the case-study at the end of this piece. For every elite footballer, there are many who do not make the top echelon of players. There are arguably even more stress factors in this group who what to achieve but for one reason or another, cannot.As far as motivation is concerned, this is a major concern of every coach and manager in the country for reasons that we have set out above. nigh premier teams will have psychologists who are motivational specialists. Motivational theory is evolving at a rapid rate and reversal theory is the current idea of the moment . A particularly good book on the subject is edited by Apter (2001) . It deals with not only the current thinking on the subject but also the actual evolution of the reversal theory from its conception in the 70s through to the applications of the present day. Significantly it also deals with the specific subject of stress engendered by the motivational process. It is a highly technical book and therefore we do not propose to enter into detail about its contents, but it highlights the psychological issues of burn-out, apathy and depression that are commonly seen in constantly ( and inappropriately) do players.In the context of elite footballers, there is a fascinating and short article by McNair (1996) which looked at the effect of verbal cost increase on supreme effort output. The game of football is anecdotally renowned for the aggressive verbal abuse beloved by many trainers, coaches and managers. One may argue that it is only a manifestation of their own frustrations and stre sses that causes them to behave in this way and it is certainly a cause of stress to the players (clearly it is intended to be). McNairs paper produces a cast-iron principle for this encouragement as he found, by means of a very simply designed study, that verbal encouragement does increase the maximal output of squandered muscle. Interestingly, while measuring the actual power output, he also measured the EMG tracings of the afferent nerves supplying the relevant muscles and found that verbal encouragement did not change the EMG readings, so the actual cause of the improvement was not ascertained but it was nonetheless real.Constant levels of fitnessConstant levels of fitness are clearly a pre-requisite for an elite footballer. There may well be periods of injury where the fitness levels fall, but they must be quickly re-established in order to achieve optimum performance levels. Fitness, in general terms equates with earning power and job security for a elite footballer, so the overriding goal must be to achieve peak fitness at all times. This, in certain circumstances, can become an obsession (See on exercise dependence) cultivate dependenceMany studies have shown the exercise can give rise to demonstrable health benefits both chronic and acute. There are some mint for whom exercise actually becomes an obsession (Hurst et al. 2000). This is a real disease entity resulting in behaviour patterns that compel an individual to exercise despite the presence of obstacles. It also can produce both psychological and physical symptoms of withdrawal, if exercise cannot be taken (Pierce, 1994) ( Veale, 1995) (Thaxton 1982). These patterns are commoner in women and often associated with eating disorders but they are also seen in male athletes. Bamber et al. (2000) has authored a paper which produced a qualitative analysis of the whole issue. She found that elements of an eating disorder were always present to a greater or lesser degree, but that this was hard to qu antify as many athletes will pursue closely monitored nourishmentary regimes in any event.This syndrome is commonest in women, but does occur in men, particularly it seems in those who have low self-esteem or a poor self-image. It may be thought that such traits are unusual in the context of elite footballers but perceived body image does not always reflect the true physique. Any experienced healthcare professional will tell you about the anorexic or muscle dysmorphic who perceives something quite different when they look in the mirror. It is commonly believed that such conditions are a result of compensation syndromes. People may have a need to try to excel in one area if they feel that they are in some way failing in another.(Bamber 2003)Injury concerns Injury is the footballers constant fear. Football is a fast and occasionally violent game with frequent body contact being an intrinsic part of the game plan. Injury can vary from trivial to catastrophic or even life-threatening. Most injuries will have an impact on the elite footballer either at the time of the injury or, as we have seen above, at a later stage in his life. We have referred earlier to the comparatively short earning window of the elite footballer and clearly there will be considerable stresses involved if that window is cut short for any reason.Because of the huge investment that the average elite footballer represents to any club, a huge amount of energy and resources are employed to get an injured player spinal column onto the field of play. It has to be said that the vast majority of professional clubs act responsibly in allowing injuries to heal properly before returning the player to training, but there will be the inevitable pressure on the less-than-scrupulous coach to get the player back on the field before full recovery has taken place. This has costs to the player in terms of impaired performance and also in terms of long term problems arising from an incompletely healed injury. Ekstrand et al. (2004) looked at the problem as a result of the 2002 World loving cup. They cite one of the major reasons for injury as being the frequence of the matches in a packed calendar for the top players. Injuries which would normally be regarded as comparatively minor did not get the usual chance to heal completely before the next game was due to be played. This resulted in a rising accumulative total of injuries above what skill otherwise be expected over a comparatively short period.The study found that, over the ten months of the World Cup games the average player played 36 matches. The top players form each team played, on average, 46 matches over the same period. The survey showed that the players who played in the World Cup matches sustained 29% more injuries than players from the same teams who did not play. 32% underperformed when compared to their normal standard. These players had played statistically more matches than those who were felt to have played better t han expected. One major finding was that 60% of the players who had played more than one match in the week before a World Cup match were either injured or underperformed during the World Cup game. The clear inference from this study is that tiredness and physical burnout affects performance in elite footballers. At the highest levels, players, clubs and coaches should be witting that this is a real phenomenon. And, at the very least, is a considerable cause of stress to the players.Orchard and Seward (2002) Took this concept a stage further and looked at the injuries sustained by the entire Australian Football League over seasons from 1997-2000. Their findings are a major source of concern to the elite footballer world.In a season each team of 40 players would expect to receive 39 separate injuries. Clearly some players would be injured more than once (The major predisposing factor for injury is a pre-existing injury). The injury prevalence of players missing through injury in a we ek was 16% with a restoration rate of 17%. They found that the commonest injury was to the hamstrings, followed by ACL strains and then groin injuries. For an elite footballer who depends upon his ability to play for his income, these figures represent a great cause of potential stress.Before leaving this area, we should consider one other area of injury which we touched upon earlier, and that is the sequelae of concussion. Bloom et al (2004)looked at this particular problem in great detail with particular reference to the psychological changes that were observed to occur after the injury. After suffering a concussive injury, the elite footballer was found to suffer from a greater incidence of symptoms of isolation, pain,anxiety, and disruption of daily life as a result of the injury. The investigators found that a source of added stress was, unthought-ofly, from other team members who appeared to be giving support but were subliminally putting pressure on the injured athlete to re turn to play. The investigators found a worrying number of unexpected psychological symptoms including anger, denial, depression, distress, bargaining, and shock. Clearly this needs to be both recognised and addressed if the impact of the injury is not to be a further source of stress to the injured footballerDietary concernsThe elite footballer must always be at peak fitness and as a result his diet must always be under scrutiny. Fitness generally needs a BMI in the region of 20-23. Significant weight gains beyond this range not only reduce performance levels but also increase the wear and tear on the joints. We have already discussed the extent to which the knee joint is stressed during football training and playing. Adding weight to this joint is clearly only going to add to the degenerative changes that occur.An elite footballer needs to be able to vivify his body mass rapidly in a given direction. It follows that the greater the body weight, the greater effort is needed. He wi ll know this both at a cerebral level and also at an instinctive level. He will know that if his weight goes up significantly then it becomes harder for him to run as fast and to turn as in force(p)ly. The average elite footballer is therefore very careful with regard to his diet. The average man in the population can afford to go out for an occasional extravagant meal or the odd evening or two at the pub without worrying withal much about the consequences. The consequences for the elite footballer are that, in doing such things he would have to reduce his calorie intake over the next some days in order to maintain the status quo. This again can become a major source of stress for many.As the years go by, the average male tends to become slower and to put on weight as a natural process. This insidious reduction in the bodys efficiency is obviously a concern to a footballer who will often try to combat this trend with ever more aggressive training programmes and dietary regimes a gain another source of stress.Drug monitoring concernsA number of elite footballers have hit the headlines lately as a result of random drug tests, either through failing or missing them. Doping and drug-enhanced training is a fact of professional football life in the current climate. It follows that the regulatory powers have to be ruthless in their quest for a drug-free sport. The fact that some players do gamble against the odds and take performance enhancing medications and drugs is a reflection of the stress and pressure that they feel under to constantly perform. It equally follows that they must feel that their performance is not good enough if they need to resort to such measures.The problems do not stop at performance enhancing drugs. Stress and other factors may tempt a player to use drugs of a different sort. Recreational drugs are common in elite footballer circles. In support of this statement we would consider the paper by Turner (2003) In which he states that a recent ly retired elite footballer claimed that 80% of elite footballers in Australia had either been offered or used recreational drugs. This statement was extensively reported in the Press and other sources quoted the figure as being nearer 30%. The truth of the matter will clearly never be know but it can be contrasted with the figure from the UK which shows that over 18% of all the positive drugs screening tests done on athletes are currently for recreational drugs. This can be put in perspective against the 35% positive findings for stimulants and 25% for anabolic agentsPremature retirement privacy is a fact of life for all workers. As we have discussed earlier, retirement from active playing and therefore from a high earning capacity tends to come at a much earlier age for a footballer. It is therefore a major incentive to keep playing at a high level for as long as possible.Retirement through the natural ageing process is something that the elite footballer obviously has to come t o terms with. It is comparatively unusual for a top rank footballer to be playing into his forties. He may have the experience to play well, but he is always judged on his results, and the fact of the matter is that there will always be younger players who will generally be faster and filled with raw enthusiasm ready to jump into any vacant schedule at the top. The elite footballer therefore knows that his playing days are always numbered.We have discussed earlier the problems faced by the elite footballer in respect of the ever-present danger of injury. Clearly a career-ending injury can come at any time. It can be career-ending because of a dramatic possibility such as a major fracture of a major bone or it can be a more subtle process, a bad tackle gives rise to an ankle injury which, in turn gives rise to an unstable ankle that does not allow the pivoting action necessary for efficient play. It becomes obvious that the player is not performing as well as another player in the squad and therefore he is replaced with greater frequency and then he becomes dispirited and eventually dropped from the team. The end process is just the same in either eventuality cessation of an active playing career and the concurrent loss of high earning capacity.The result can be devastating for a man who, in order to achieve elite footballer status, may well have devoted a substantial proportion of his adolescent and adult life to improving and perfecting his football skills. He finds himself effectively out of a job at an age where most men are still looking forward to at least twenty more years of prolific work. The immediate openings for him are limited to training, coaching or managing, all of which are highly competitive as they have been filled by his footballing predecessors and generally, they are not as well paid as his previous career. The stresses and psychological traumas are all too easy to see if the elite footballer has not been particularly level-headed in h is approach to the profession.The unlikely body of Windsor Insurance Brokers Ltd. published a study of an investigation into the career-ending incidents of professional footballers in the UK (1997) which makes interesting reading. They did not analyse the actual levels of stress that we are concerned about in this piece, but their findings make sobering reading to the current generation of elite footballers. It would appear that few elite footballers actually reach retirement age without a significant injury. That injury is responsible (either directly or indirectly) for the eventual d